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By Fred Halliday, Hamza Alavi

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Extra info for State and Ideology in the Middle East and Pakistan

Example text

One may say, with the examples of Zia, Numeiry in Sudan, and probably ultimately Khomeini and his followers, that there is nothing like having a government that calls itself Islamic to discredit Islamism. Zia's government has done this in various ways. For the popular masses he has not brought significant economic or social improvements, and education, health, and social welfare remain at abysmally low levels, despite overall economic growth. In addition, his policies have offended several key groups, who have generally mounted a more militant and effective opposition than have their counterparts elsewhere in the Islamic world.

Half of the population lived in urban areas, per capita income was over $2000 and, however unevenly this was distributed, it meant that most Iranians living in the cities were materially better off than a decade before. It was not the sans-culottes who made the revolution, but people who had benefited materially from a process of a rapid capitalist modernisation. 9 Second, in contrast to all other Third World revolutions, the Iranian Revolution took place in the cities. Many of those who participated in it may have been peasants (that is, of rural origin), but it was an urban event, produced by the conditions of the major cities in the 1970s.

2 Khomeini on one occasion declared that the goal of revolution was not to provide the people with cheap melons. ' Thirdly, while the Iranian Revolution has articulated nationalist themes of assertion and rejection, it was undertaken in the name of universalistic religion and laid comparatively little stress on Iran as a national entity. Its universalism was more pronounced than that of France or Russia. This was evident both in the cultural shift accompanying the revolution, where many features of the indigenous Iranian culture were rejected along with the values of the West, and in the projection of Iran as the first part of an insurgent Muslim community to overthrow its oppressors.

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